Recoverable Errors with Result
Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely. Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily interpret and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the file instead of terminating the process.
Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with the Result
Type” in Chapter 2 that the Result
enum is
defined as having two variants, Ok
and Err
, as follows:
# #![allow(unused_variables)] #fn main() { enum Result<T, E> { Ok(T), Err(E), } #}
The T
and E
are generic type parameters: we’ll discuss generics in more
detail in Chapter 10. What you need to know right now is that T
represents
the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the Ok
variant, and E
represents the type of the error that will be returned in a
failure case within the Err
variant. Because Result
has these generic type
parameters, we can use the Result
type and the functions that the standard
library has defined on it in many different situations where the successful
value and error value we want to return may differ.
Let’s call a function that returns a Result
value because the function could
fail. In Listing 9-3 we try to open a file.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); }
How do we know File::open
returns a Result
? We could look at the standard
library API documentation, or we could ask
the compiler! If we give f
a type annotation that we know is not the return
type of the function and then try to compile the code, the compiler will tell
us that the types don’t match. The error message will then tell us what the
type of f
is. Let’s try it! We know that the return type of File::open
isn’t of type u32
, so let’s change the let f
statement to this:
let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
Attempting to compile now gives us the following output:
error[E0308]: mismatched types
--> src/main.rs:4:18
|
4 | let f: u32 = File::open("hello.txt");
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected u32, found enum
`std::result::Result`
|
= note: expected type `u32`
found type `std::result::Result<std::fs::File, std::io::Error>`
This tells us the return type of the File::open
function is a Result<T, E>
.
The generic parameter T
has been filled in here with the type of the success
value, std::fs::File
, which is a file handle. The type of E
used in the
error value is std::io::Error
.
This return type means the call to File::open
might succeed and return a file
handle that we can read from or write to. The function call also might fail:
for example, the file might not exist, or we might not have permission to
access the file. The File::open
function needs to have a way to tell us
whether it succeeded or failed and at the same time give us either the file
handle or error information. This information is exactly what the Result
enum
conveys.
In the case where File::open
succeeds, the value in the variable f
will be
an instance of Ok
that contains a file handle. In the case where it fails,
the value in f
will be an instance of Err
that contains more information
about the kind of error that happened.
We need to add to the code in Listing 9-3 to take different actions depending
on the value File::open
returns. Listing 9-4 shows one way to handle the
Result
using a basic tool, the match
expression that we discussed in
Chapter 6.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); let f = match f { Ok(file) => file, Err(error) => { panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error) }, }; }
Note that, like the Option
enum, the Result
enum and its variants have been
brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify Result::
before the Ok
and Err
variants in the match
arms.
Here we tell Rust that when the result is Ok
, return the inner file
value
out of the Ok
variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the
variable f
. After the match
, we can use the file handle for reading or
writing.
The other arm of the match
handles the case where we get an Err
value from
File::open
. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the panic!
macro. If
there’s no file named hello.txt in our current directory and we run this
code, we’ll see the following output from the panic!
macro:
thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Error { repr:
Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/main.rs:9:12
As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong.
Matching on Different Errors
The code in Listing 9-4 will panic!
no matter why File::open
failed. What
we want to do instead is take different actions for different failure reasons:
if File::open
failed because the file doesn’t exist, we want to create the
file and return the handle to the new file. If File::open
failed for any
other reason—for example, because we didn’t have permission to open the file—we
still want the code to panic!
in the same way as it did in Listing 9-4. Look
at Listing 9-5, which adds an inner match
expression.
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt");
let f = match f {
Ok(file) => file,
Err(error) => match error.kind() {
ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") {
Ok(fc) => fc,
Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", e),
},
other_error => panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", other_error),
},
};
}
The type of the value that File::open
returns inside the Err
variant is
io::Error
, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct
has a method kind
that we can call to get an io::ErrorKind
value. The enum
io::ErrorKind
is provided by the standard library and has variants
representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an io
operation. The variant we want to use is ErrorKind::NotFound
, which indicates
the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on f
, but we
also have an inner match on error.kind()
.
The condition we want to check in the inner match is whether the value returned
by error.kind()
is the NotFound
variant of the ErrorKind
enum. If it is,
we try to create the file with File::create
. However, because File::create
could also fail, we need a second arm in the inner match
expression. When the
file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of
the outer match
stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides
the missing file error.
That’s a lot of match
! The match
expression is very useful but also very
much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures; the Result<T, E>
type has many methods that accept a closure and are implemented using
match
expressions. Using those methods will make your code more concise. A
more seasoned Rustacean might write this code instead of Listing 9-5:
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound {
File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error);
})
} else {
panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error);
}
});
}
Although this code has the same behavior as Listing 9-5, it doesn’t contain any
match
expressions and is cleaner to read. Come back to this example after
you’ve read Chapter 13, and look up the unwrap_or_else
method in the standard
library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge nested
match
expressions when you’re dealing with errors.
Shortcuts for Panic on Error: unwrap
and expect
Using match
works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always
communicate intent well. The Result<T, E>
type has many helper methods
defined on it to do various tasks. One of those methods, called unwrap
, is a
shortcut method that is implemented just like the match
expression we wrote in
Listing 9-4. If the Result
value is the Ok
variant, unwrap
will return
the value inside the Ok
. If the Result
is the Err
variant, unwrap
will
call the panic!
macro for us. Here is an example of unwrap
in action:
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap(); }
If we run this code without a hello.txt file, we’ll see an error message from
the panic!
call that the unwrap
method makes:
thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error {
repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }',
src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
Another method, expect
, which is similar to unwrap
, lets us also choose the
panic!
error message. Using expect
instead of unwrap
and providing good
error messages can convey your intent and make tracking down the source of a
panic easier. The syntax of expect
looks like this:
Filename: src/main.rs
use std::fs::File; fn main() { let f = File::open("hello.txt").expect("Failed to open hello.txt"); }
We use expect
in the same way as unwrap
: to return the file handle or call
the panic!
macro. The error message used by expect
in its call to panic!
will be the parameter that we pass to expect
, rather than the default
panic!
message that unwrap
uses. Here’s what it looks like:
thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Error { repr: Os { code:
2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
Because this error message starts with the text we specified, Failed to open hello.txt
, it will be easier to find where in the code this error message is
coming from. If we use unwrap
in multiple places, it can take more time to
figure out exactly which unwrap
is causing the panic because all unwrap
calls that panic print the same message.
Propagating Errors
When you’re writing a function whose implementation calls something that might fail, instead of handling the error within this function, you can return the error to the calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as propagating the error and gives more control to the calling code, where there might be more information or logic that dictates how the error should be handled than what you have available in the context of your code.
For example, Listing 9-6 shows a function that reads a username from a file. If the file doesn’t exist or can’t be read, this function will return those errors to the code that called this function.
Filename: src/main.rs
# #![allow(unused_variables)] #fn main() { use std::io; use std::io::Read; use std::fs::File; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let f = File::open("hello.txt"); let mut f = match f { Ok(file) => file, Err(e) => return Err(e), }; let mut s = String::new(); match f.read_to_string(&mut s) { Ok(_) => Ok(s), Err(e) => Err(e), } } #}
This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by
doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end,
we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function first:
Result<String, io::Error>
. This means the function is returning a value of
the type Result<T, E>
where the generic parameter T
has been filled in
with the concrete type String
and the generic type E
has been filled in
with the concrete type io::Error
. If this function succeeds without any
problems, the code that calls this function will receive an Ok
value that
holds a String
—the username that this function read from the file. If this
function encounters any problems, the code that calls this function will
receive an Err
value that holds an instance of io::Error
that contains
more information about what the problems were. We chose io::Error
as the
return type of this function because that happens to be the type of the error
value returned from both of the operations we’re calling in this function’s
body that might fail: the File::open
function and the read_to_string
method.
The body of the function starts by calling the File::open
function. Then we
handle the Result
value returned with a match
similar to the match
in
Listing 9-4, only instead of calling panic!
in the Err
case, we return
early from this function and pass the error value from File::open
back to the
calling code as this function’s error value. If File::open
succeeds, we store
the file handle in the variable f
and continue.
Then we create a new String
in variable s
and call the read_to_string
method on the file handle in f
to read the contents of the file into s
. The
read_to_string
method also returns a Result
because it might fail, even
though File::open
succeeded. So we need another match
to handle that
Result
: if read_to_string
succeeds, then our function has succeeded, and we
return the username from the file that’s now in s
wrapped in an Ok
. If
read_to_string
fails, we return the error value in the same way that we
returned the error value in the match
that handled the return value of
File::open
. However, we don’t need to explicitly say return
, because this
is the last expression in the function.
The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an Ok
value
that contains a username or an Err
value that contains an io::Error
. We
don’t know what the calling code will do with those values. If the calling code
gets an Err
value, it could call panic!
and crash the program, use a
default username, or look up the username from somewhere other than a file, for
example. We don’t have enough information on what the calling code is actually
trying to do, so we propagate all the success or error information upward for
it to handle appropriately.
This pattern of propagating errors is so common in Rust that Rust provides the
question mark operator ?
to make this easier.
A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the ?
Operator
Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of read_username_from_file
that has the
same functionality as it had in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the
?
operator.
Filename: src/main.rs
# #![allow(unused_variables)] #fn main() { use std::io; use std::io::Read; use std::fs::File; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let mut f = File::open("hello.txt")?; let mut s = String::new(); f.read_to_string(&mut s)?; Ok(s) } #}
The ?
placed after a Result
value is defined to work in almost the same way
as the match
expressions we defined to handle the Result
values in Listing
9-6. If the value of the Result
is an Ok
, the value inside the Ok
will
get returned from this expression, and the program will continue. If the value
is an Err
, the Err
will be returned from the whole function as if we had
used the return
keyword so the error value gets propagated to the calling
code.
There is a difference between what the match
expression from Listing 9-6 and
the ?
operator do: error values that have the ?
operator called on them go
through the from
function, defined in the From
trait in the standard
library, which is used to convert errors from one type into another. When the
?
operator calls the from
function, the error type received is converted
into the error type defined in the return type of the current function. This is
useful when a function returns one error type to represent all the ways a
function might fail, even if parts might fail for many different reasons. As
long as each error type implements the from
function to define how to convert
itself to the returned error type, the ?
operator takes care of the
conversion automatically.
In the context of Listing 9-7, the ?
at the end of the File::open
call will
return the value inside an Ok
to the variable f
. If an error occurs, the
?
operator will return early out of the whole function and give any Err
value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the ?
at the end of the
read_to_string
call.
The ?
operator eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s
implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining
method calls immediately after the ?
, as shown in Listing 9-8.
Filename: src/main.rs
# #![allow(unused_variables)] #fn main() { use std::io; use std::io::Read; use std::fs::File; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { let mut s = String::new(); File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut s)?; Ok(s) } #}
We’ve moved the creation of the new String
in s
to the beginning of the
function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable f
, we’ve
chained the call to read_to_string
directly onto the result of
File::open("hello.txt")?
. We still have a ?
at the end of the
read_to_string
call, and we still return an Ok
value containing the
username in s
when both File::open
and read_to_string
succeed rather than
returning errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and
Listing 9-7; this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it.
Speaking of different ways to write this function, Listing 9-9 shows that there’s a way to make this even shorter.
Filename: src/main.rs
# #![allow(unused_variables)] #fn main() { use std::io; use std::fs; fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> { fs::read_to_string("hello.txt") } #}
Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so Rust provides the
convenient fs::read_to_string
function that opens the file, creates a new
String
, reads the contents of the file, puts the contents into that String
,
and returns it. Of course, using fs::read_to_string
doesn’t give us the
opportunity to explain all the error handling, so we did it the longer way
first.
The ?
Operator Can Only Be Used in Functions That Return Result
The ?
operator can only be used in functions that have a return type of
Result
, because it is defined to work in the same way as the match
expression we defined in Listing 9-6. The part of the match
that requires a
return type of Result
is return Err(e)
, so the return type of the function
must be a Result
to be compatible with this return
.
Let’s look at what happens if we use the ?
operator in the main
function,
which you’ll recall has a return type of ()
:
use std::fs::File;
fn main() {
let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
}
When we compile this code, we get the following error message:
error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns
`Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `std::ops::Try`)
--> src/main.rs:4:13
|
4 | let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ cannot use the `?` operator in a
function that returns `()`
|
= help: the trait `std::ops::Try` is not implemented for `()`
= note: required by `std::ops::Try::from_error`
This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the ?
operator in a
function that returns Result<T, E>
. When you’re writing code in a function
that doesn’t return Result<T, E>
, and you want to use ?
when you call other
functions that return Result<T, E>
, you have two choices to fix this problem.
One technique is to change the return type of your function to be Result<T, E>
if you have no restrictions preventing that. The other technique is to use
a match
or one of the Result<T, E>
methods to handle the Result<T, E>
in
whatever way is appropriate.
The main
function is special, and there are restrictions on what its return
type must be. One valid return type for main is ()
, and conveniently, another
valid return type is Result<T, E>
, as shown here:
use std::error::Error;
use std::fs::File;
fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
Ok(())
}
The Box<dyn Error>
type is called a trait object, which we’ll talk about in
the “Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different
Types” section in Chapter 17. For now, you can
read Box<dyn Error>
to mean “any kind of error.” Using ?
in a main
function with this return type is allowed.
Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling panic!
or returning Result
,
let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which
cases.